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This Practice Note outlines the law concerning criminal recklessness. The subjective test for recklessness Certain statutory and common law offences allow the prosecution to prove mens rea through ‘recklessness’. Put simply, recklessness is where the accused takes an unjustified risk that results in unlawful harm or damage. The House of Lords in R v G reaffirmed the subjective approach to recklessness. Before R v G, two distinct tests were used, depending on the offence charged: Subjective recklessness from R v Cunningham: the prosecution had to establish that the accused personally foresaw the risk. Objective recklessness from R v Caldwell: the prosecution only needed to show that the risk would have been obvious to a reasonable person, without proving the accused themselves foresaw it. In R v G, the House of Lords concluded that the objective test could operate unfairly where a defendant did not foresee the
This Practice Note examines the remedy of rescission, explaining when and in what manner a contract can be unwound (at common law, in equity and under statute) and thereby terminated and brought to an end. It covers the consequences and effects of rescission, the principal grounds for setting aside an agreement (misrepresentation, mistake, undue influence, duress, non‑disclosure, fiduciary misdealing and bribery) and the main obstacles to claiming rescission—affirmation, the intervention of third‑party rights and the impossibility of restitution. For further guidance on rescission in the context of misrepresentation, see Practice Note: Misrepresentation—rescission as a remedy. There are many ways in which a contract may reach its end; see: Terminating contracts—how and when a contract ends—overview for a brief and accessible summary, with links to the related further practical guidance, including Practice Note: Termination and expiry of contracts. For a table
What is a res judicata? A res judicata is a determination by a court or tribunal with jurisdiction over the cause of action and the parties, which finally disposes of the issues decided so they cannot be litigated again by those bound, save on appeal. Final judgments entered by default or by consent fall within this concept, whereas rulings on purely procedural points and any decision lacking finality do not. The doctrine’s aim is to bring litigation to an end and shield parties from being harassed by the same dispute twice. in personam—binds the parties and their privies in rem—binds all persons, privy or otherwise (ie a judgment binding the whole world) A party may rely on res judicata: as an estoppel to defeat an opponent’s claim or defence; and/or as the basis of their own claim or
The offence of causing grievous bodily harm with intent Wounding or causing grievous bodily harm (GBH) with intent can be tried solely in the Crown Court on indictment. Elements of the offence Under the Offences against the Person Act 1861 (OATPA 1861), the prosecution must establish that the defendant unlawfully and maliciously: wounded with the intention of causing GBH, or caused GBH with that intention, or wounded intending to resist or prevent the lawful arrest or detention of any person, or caused GBH intending to resist or prevent the lawful arrest or detention of any person ‘Unlawfully’ and ‘maliciously’ Unlawfully The wounding or causing of GBH must be unlawful. Such conduct may be lawful if used: in self-defence in defence of another in defence of property for the prevention of crime where the victim gave express or implied consent For further information on these defences, see below:
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Databases For many years, databases—particularly electronic ones—have been a significant component of digital economies across the globe. Numerous jurisdictions view investing in and leveraging databases as essential to fostering an information market. In the UK, the principal legislation concerning IP protection for databases comprises: the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 ( CDPA 1988) the Copyright and Rights in Databases Regulations 1997 ( CRD 1997), SI 1997/3032, which gave effect to Directive 96/9/ EC on the legal protection of databases ( EU Database Directive) in the UK (now assimilated law, see: Databases and assimilated EU law, below) A database can receive protection in a range of ways: copyright can shield literary and artistic works, including tables and compilations forming part of a database, provided they are original works......
This Practice Note explores the role, function and significance of defined terms within an agreement context. It outlines those definitions most frequently found in documents relating to transactions, and considers the method that ought properly to be adopted when reviewing or preparing a contract that uses defined terminology. For wider guidance on boilerplate clauses generally, see Practice Note: The role of boilerplate. For general guidance on construing contracts, see Practice Note: Contract interpretation—rules of contract interpretation. The definitions and interpretation clause A common boilerplate provision is the definitions and interpretation clause, often treated as a standard component. It should gather every individual defined term contained in the agreement together with all provisions that govern the overall interpretation of the agreement and, where required, the meaning of particular expressions used in it as well. Typically, the defined terms and the...
This Practice Note examines how the 2005 Hague Convention on Choice of Court Agreements—which provides regimes for allocating court jurisdiction and for the recognition and enforcement of judgments—will operate in the UK after the end of the Brexit implementation period, viewed from the perspectives of both the UK and the EU Member States. The Convention applies solely to exclusive choice of court agreements. Definitions This Practice Note uses the following definitions: Hague Convention— Convention on Choice of Court Agreements concluded on 30 June 2005 at The Hague ECA 1972— European Communities Act 1972 EU( W) A 2018— European Union ( Withdrawal) Act 2018 EU( WA) A 2020— European Union ( Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020 exit day—is defined in EU( W) A 2018, s 20 implementation period—is defined in EU( WA) A 2020, s 1. ‘...
This Practice Note reviews the application of the Hague Convention on Choice of Court Agreements by contracting states to the convention. It sets out the parties to the convention, as well as those states that have signed the convention but have not yet ratified it. It also outlines how the convention operates for contracting states. For guidance on further elements of the convention, see the following Practice Notes: Hague Convention on Choice of Court Agreements (jurisdiction and enforcement)— Brexit considerations Hague Convention on Choice of Court Agreements—scope Hague Convention on Choice of Court Agreements—jurisdiction Hague Convention on Choice of Court Agreements—enforcement Definitions This Practice Note uses a number of definitions: Hague Convention on Choice of Court Agreements— HCCH Convention on Choice of Court Agreements concluded on 30 June 2005 at The Hague EU( W) A 2018— European Union (...
The Public Interest Disclosure Act 1998 ( PIDA 1998) The Public Interest Disclosure Act 1998 ( PIDA 1998) introduced provisions into the Employment Rights Act 1996 ( ERA 1996) to protect workers who make protected disclosures, enabling 'whistleblowers' to bring a claim before an employment tribunal for detriment and/or dismissal arising from raising a concern in the public interest. Employees of the security and intelligence services and members of the UK armed forces are excluded from these provisions. Civil servants, police officers and government contractors may lodge a claim provided they have not been carved out by a ministerial certificate. Although disclosures to the media or the wider public can be protected, an individual who commits a criminal offence when making the disclosure will not benefit from protection. Accordingly, workers arrested for any offence linked to the disclosure must wait for...
This Practice Note sets out practical guidance on how unincorporated charities execute documents. For details on execution by incorporated charities, refer to Practice Note: Execution formalities—incorporated charities. We offer a comprehensive, interactive collection that helps users identify and navigate the concepts and common issues in document execution, including deeds. Each stage includes practical guidance, precedent clauses and Q& As tailored to that stage. For further detail, see the Execution collection. Capacity Unincorporated charities lack a separate legal personality; consequently, the entity itself has no rights or duties and cannot own property in its own name. Property that appears to ‘belong’ to an unincorporated charity is vested in the organisation’s leading members, who act as trustees and hold it on trust for the remaining members. Accordingly, the individuals with authority to enter into arrangements and to execute documents are the trustees or members of the...
Practice Note This Practice Note is intended to guide the identification of the applicable law before the courts of England and Wales in relation to events that cause damage, where those events took place on or after 1 January 2021. Where a dispute raises a conflict of laws between different parts of the UK, or between the UK and Gibraltar, UK Rome II applies if the harmful event occurred on or after 11 January 2009. For occurrences falling outside these dates, the UK courts will apply a different applicable law regime, determined by the date of the event. For an overview of the various regimes and how they interrelate, see Practice Note: Applicable law regimes. This Practice Note refers to UK Rome II, Regulation ( EC) 864/2007. UK Rome II reproduces the full text and recitals of Regulation ( EC) 864/2007 (as...
Numerous businesses and public bodies, including HMRC, have faced exposure to or loss of confidential information, as well as other confidentiality failings, yet such events are not always widely publicised given the potential harm to an organisation’s reputation. Duties of confidence may arise by implication—for example, the duty of good faith (often called fidelity) inherent in employment contracts—be set out expressly, such as in a confidentiality agreement, or be imposed through regulation and statute, for instance the client confidentiality obligations on financial services and health professionals. A confidentiality breach can therefore infringe several overlapping legal duties. This Practice Note complements the related Practice Note, How to manage a personal data breach, which reflects guidance from the UK data protection regulator, the Information Commissioner’s Office, addressing loss of personal data within the data protection regime, which may, or may not, also be...
This Practice Note provides guidance on pursuing a ‘ UK GDPR claim’. It does so by referring to the United Kingdom General Data Protection Regulation, Assimilated Regulation ( EU) 2016/679 ( UK GDPR), as revised by the Data ( Use and Access) Act 2025 ( DUAA 2025), together with the Data Protection Act 2018 ( DPA 2018). Matters falling within the EU are governed by the EU’s General Data Protection Regulation, Regulation ( EU) 2016/679 ( EU GDPR). UK data protection rules—most notably Assimilated Regulation ( EU) 2016/679, UK GDPR—originate largely from EEA regimes and consequently rest on comparable foundations, albeit with some granular divergences. In the UK, “assimilated law” denotes retained EU law ( REUL) that continued post‑2023, including the UK GDPR. Re‑labelling REUL (and related expressions) as assimilated law signalled an alteration in its standing and handling under UK law, meaning it is...
Practice Note This Practice Note sets out leading judgments of the High Court, Court of Appeal and Supreme Court under the law of England and Wales, handed down since 2012, concerning compensation claims by data subjects for breaches of one or more of the following UK data protection laws: the United Kingdom General Data Protection Regulation, Assimilated Regulation ( EU) 2016/679 ( UK GDPR), together with related provisions of the Data Protection Act 2018 ( DPA 2018) Assimilated law is the label given to retained EU law ( REUL) that remains in force after the end of 2023, such as the UK GDPR. The re-categorisation of REUL (and associated terms) as assimilated law marks a change in its status and treatment under UK law, in that it is generally to be interpreted according to ordinary domestic law and principles. From 1 January 2024, REUL is...
This Practice Note Addresses defamation in the sphere of social media. It considers when individuals, internet service providers ( ISPs), website operators and employers could incur liability for defamatory material, and outlines defences available under the Defamation Act 1996 ( De A 1996), the Electronic Commerce ( EC Directive) Regulations 2002 ( E- Commerce Regulations 2002), SI 2002/2013, the Defamation Act 2013 ( DA 2013) and the Defamation ( Operators of Websites) Regulations 2013 ( DOW Regulations 2013), SI 2013/3028. The internet, and social media in particular, is a high-risk arena for defamation disputes. Posts on blogs, internet forums, online newspaper comment areas and well-known social networking platforms such as Facebook and X (formerly Twitter) can be inaccurate and malicious in nature. Anonymity prompts some people to abandon the normal cautions they would apply to other forms of publication. For a...
This Practice Note It sets out what a smart legal contract (often called a smart contract) is, both as a technological tool and as a binding legal device, and summarises the Law Commission’s guidance to the UK government, which found that the existing UK legal framework can enable and underpin the use of smart legal contracts. It outlines the legal concepts relevant to contract formation, form, formalities and interpretation under UK law, and contrasts their conventional application with how, according to the Law Commission, they might apply to the principal categories of smart legal contract. The Practice Note covers: • What is a smart legal contract? • Distributed ledger technology ( DLT) • Enforceability under UK law • The formation of smart legal contracts • Agreement (including offer and acceptance) • Consideration • Certainty and completeness • Intention to create legal relations •...
Relationship between causes of action for reputational damage claims which may provide alternatives to a defamation claim This Practice Note explores how other causes of action connected to reputational harm may operate as alternatives to a defamation claim. It examines malicious falsehood, misuse of private information, breach of confidence, contraventions of data protection legislation, harassment and negligent misstatement. Defamation remains the core route for safeguarding reputation. In essence, such a claim arises where material is communicated to third parties that diminishes the claimant in the eyes of reasonable members of the public, carrying an allegation capable of causing serious harm to their reputation, and where no defence in law applies. For further detail, see Practice Note: Defamation. In certain situations, it can be appropriate—and sometimes necessary—to pursue a different cause of action, potentially against a person other than the original publisher. Care is...
This Practice Note condenses the law, guidance and practical approach to executing simple contracts and deeds. It highlights the main distinctions between deeds and simple contracts, pinpoints those transactions that must be effected by deed, and outlines the execution formalities for both. It also covers the need for signature, use of counterparts, dating, smart legal contracts, virtual execution and electronic signatures. We have created a comprehensive, interactive collection to help users recognise and navigate the concepts and recurring issues that arise when executing documents. Each section or phase provides practical guidance, precedent-style clauses and Q& As relevant to that stage. For further information, see: Execution collection. Creating contracts A contract is a binding agreement that confers rights and imposes obligations on two or more parties. There is extensive case law on contract principles which is not examined in detail here. Put simply, for a...
STOP PRESS: On 19 June 2025, the Data ( Use and Access) Bill secured Royal Assent, becoming the Data ( Use and Access) Act 2025 ( DUAA 2025), with parts commencing on that day. Provisions addressing, among other things, handling data subject access requests and granting powers to make further regulations took effect immediately on 19 June 2025. Other measures, dealing with notices from the Information Commissioner and certain aspects of law enforcement processing, began on 19 August 2025, two months after Royal Assent. Most remaining sections of DUAA 2025 require additional regulations, in the form of statutory instruments, before they can commence. Parts 5 and 6 amend areas of UK data protection and e Privacy law, including the United Kingdom General Data Protection Regulation, Assimilated Regulation ( EU) 2016/679 ( UK GDPR), the Data Protection Act 2018, and the Privacy and...
The Investigatory Powers Act 2016 ( IPA 2016) reshaped the statutory regime governing covert surveillance by public bodies, a regime that was largely, though not entirely, contained in the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 ( RIPA 2000). Local authorities hold powers under both IPA 2016 and RIPA 2000. In addition, the Covert Human Intelligence Sources ( Criminal Conduct) Act 2021 allows certain public authorities to authorise criminal conduct by covert human intelligence sources. For more detail, see News Analysis: Covert Human Intelligence Sources ( Criminal Conduct) Act 2021. Surveillance powers available to authorities The acquisition and disclosure of communications data (such as telephone billing information or subscriber details) Directed surveillance (covert surveillance of individuals in public places) Covert human intelligence sources ( CHIS) (for example, the deployment of undercover officers) Local authorities employ covert methods to support their statutory...
Practice Note This Practice Note examines how the English courts approach the meaning and effect of a jurisdiction agreement (also referred to as a choice of court agreement) under English common law. It sets out the elements required for a valid jurisdiction agreement and the courts’ general method for construing these provisions. Matters addressed include whether a dispute falls within the clause’s ambit and how the jurisdiction promise interacts with the wider contract, covering separability and the position where the contract is alleged to be void or voidable. The Note also considers the courts’ approach to jurisdiction agreements contained in related contracts, as well as how conflicting jurisdiction provisions are handled. In addition, it reviews the use of jurisdiction clauses in an underlying contract for the purposes of settlement disputes, and the effect of an English law clause where no...
The Freedom of Information Act 2000 ( FIA 2000) grants a public right to access information held by public authorities, including government departments, local institutions, educational institutions, publicly owned companies and other public organisations across England, Wales and Northern Ireland. Anyone—individuals, companies and foreign nationals—can request disclosure of any information held by such authorities. This Practice Note outlines common procedural pitfalls and issues that public authorities may encounter when dealing with freedom of information requests ( FOI requests). Requirements for a valid FOI request How much information needs to be included in an FOI request? Under FIA 2000, s 8, an information request must: be in writing provide the requester’s name and a contact address set out or describe the information sought The Information Commissioner’s Office ( ICO) interprets the written requirement broadly. In ICO decision FS50530703 it was determined that FOI requests made online or via social media...
This Practice Note considers exclusion and limitation of liability in business-to-business ( B2B) contracts. This Practice Note offers guidance on the common law and statutory controls that govern exclusion and limitation of liability clauses (also described as limitation of liability clauses, limitation clauses, exclusion of liability clauses, exclusion clauses and exemption clauses), including the Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977 ( UCTA 1977) and the Misrepresentation Act 1967 ( MA 1967). It identifies which provisions amount to exemption clauses and sets out three central matters to address when drafting them or assessing them in a dispute: incorporation construction statutory controls It also outlines the courts’ treatment of attempts to exclude or restrict liability for certain breaches (eg fundamental breach) and for different heads of loss (eg direct loss, indirect and consequential loss, loss of profits, loss of use and loss of data). It notes common...
This Practice Note This Practice Note offers practical guidance on correctly and properly executing simple contracts and deeds for Law of Property Act receivers ( LPA receivers) or fixed charge receivers. Appointing an LPA/fixed charge receiver is a remedy available to the chargee (ie the holder of security over property) and is the remedy of a chargee. LPA/fixed charge receivership is not an insolvency process and does not necessarily, of itself, mean the chargor (ie the person who granted the security) is insolvent. An LPA/fixed charge receiver must be a natural person (ie a company cannot be a receiver) but need not be an insolvency practitioner or hold any other particular qualification. Unlike a liquidator, administrator or trustee in bankruptcy, an LPA/fixed charge receiver does not take control of the company as a whole (and, for an individual, does not control the...
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When evaluating a general damages claim, the practitioner ought initially to refer to the Judicial College Guidelines (JCG)...
This Practice Note This Practice Note reviews mechanisms used in settling litigation. A Tomlin order consists of a consent order paired with a schedule. It operates to stay proceedings on terms that have been agreed. The provisions contained in the schedule may remain confidential. This Practice Note describes the scope of confidentiality attaching to the schedule and sets out how it differs from a standard consent order. Sample wording for a Tomlin order is included, alongside links to precedents, as well as guidance on court approval. It also addresses varying, setting aside and enforcing a Tomlin order, including the considerations the court will take into account when handling applications for each. Further guidance is provided on interpreting and applying the relevant provisions of the CPR; however, some courts and divisions impose very specific requirements for both drafting and approval, and for approaching the schedule and confidentiality issues. Accordingly, you must consider the particular rules and court guide provisions in the forum where your claim is proceeding when drawing up the Tomlin order...
Date [ date ] Parties [ name of Landlord ] [ of OR incorporated in England and Wales (company registration number [ number ]) with its registered office at ] [ address ] (Landlord) [ name of Tenant ] [ of OR incorporated in England and Wales (company registration number [ number ]) with its registered office at ] [ address ] (Tenant) [ [ name of Guarantor ] [ of OR incorporated in England and Wales (company registration number [ number ]) with its registered office at ] [ address ] (Guarantor) ] [ [ name of Mortgagee ] [ of OR incorporated in England and Wales (company registration number [ number ]) with its registered office at ] [ address ] (Mortgagee) ] Definitions Within this Deed, the terms below shall be interpreted as follows: [ Annual Rent • the annual sum reserved under the Lease; ] [ Insurance Rent • the Tenant’s share of the Landlord’s costs of insuring the Property (as set out in the Lease); ] Lease • the lease of the Property dated [ date ], entered into between (1) [ the Landlord OR [ name ...
I, [ name ], of [ address ], solemnly and sincerely state that: [ Matters to be verified, set out in numbered paragraphs ] I make this solemn statement in good conscience, believing it to be true, and pursuant to the provisions of the Statutory Declarations Act 1835. DECLARED at [ details ] this [ day ] day of [ month and year ] Before me ................................................................................ [ signature of the person before whom the declaration is made ] A [ commissioner for oaths OR [ solicitor OR [ insert other qualification ] ] authorised to administer oaths ]...
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