Commercial law meaning

This Checklist outlines the practical considerations for a franchisor when launching an international franchise. A franchisor may wish to grow its network abroad to tap new territories and emerging markets, usually by entering into an international franchise agreement or an international development agreement. Nevertheless, the agreement and the structuring of the international arrangement can also present challenges and complications. This Checklist identifies some of the practical issues that a franchisor planning to expand overseas might encounter. Issues The franchise agreement will state that the franchisee must run the business in line with the franchisor’s operations manual. However, the business method described in that manual may not have been piloted or proven in the overseas territory. It will have been devised on assumptions tailored to the local market. A franchisee may therefore struggle to implement the method in the overseas territory if reliant on those assumptions. A franchisee is often contractually obliged to use the marketing material supplied by the franchisor under the agreement...

Options for landlord This checklist outlines the choices open to a landlord of commercial premises where the tenant is an insolvent individual, and explains the effect of restrictions operating under the various insolvency regimes. Where a landlord of a commercial property seeks to take steps against an insolvent tenant who is an individual, this checklist should then be referred to to confirm whether the landlord is permitted to pursue such action...

Basic terms At the outset, assess whether overage suits the transaction. Your client might be better protected by agreeing a higher purchase price or by entering into a conditional contract instead. Overage provisions can be intricate and expensive to negotiate. If overage is to be applied, consider when the seller expects or hopes to receive a further payment and how the buyer could avoid activating the overage. Ensure the overage includes clear definitions of: the overage period (note that, from 6 April 2010, the rule against perpetuities does not apply to most commercial interests and, if no overage period is specified, there is a risk the arrangement could be perpetual) the property that will be subject to the overage any individual units to be sold or constructed, making clear whether parking spaces and other ancillary areas form part of a unit for the overage calculation Include a ‘good faith’ clause, as this may help if the buyer does something unexpected to...

The EU General Data Protection Regulation (EU GDPR) sets out several rights for data subjects, including the right to access their personal data, and rights to rectification, erasure, restriction of processing and data portability. Data subjects may ask an organisation to exercise one or more of these rights at any time, and strict deadlines apply to meeting such requests. For comprehensive guidance on managing data subject access requests, see Practice Note: Ireland-How to handle data subject access requests. This Flowchart outlines a process for dealing with data subject requests made under the EU GDPR. It reflects the Regulation’s requirements alongside guidance issued by the Data Protection Commissioner (DPC), and should be read with Practice Note: Ireland-How to handle data subject access requests and Ireland-Evaluating a data subject access request-flowchart, where relevant. Note 1-data subject requests The EU GDPR grants data subjects a number of rights, including: a right of access to their personal data rights to rectification, erasure and restriction of processing a...

ARCHIVED: 11 pm (GMT) on 31 December 2020 signalled the conclusion of the Brexit transition/implementation phase that followed the UK’s exit from the EU. At that moment in time (known in UK legislation as ‘IP completion day’), the principal transitional provisions finally ceased. From IP completion day, the UK is unable to take an active role in the European Arrest Warrant (EAW), as EAWs apply solely to Member States...

The EU has adopted ambitious goals to curb its greenhouse gas emissions steadily up to and beyond 2030, ultimately seeking to fully attain net zero emissions by the year 2050...

Bayerische Landesbank and another v Ruschemalliance LLC [2024] EWHC 1822 (Comm) What are the practical implications of this case? In keeping with comparable determinations, this judgment succinctly sets out the jurisdictional thresholds and principal considerations the court applies when evaluating applications for anti‑suit injunctions. It underscores the judiciary’s practical bent and operates as a constructive illustration of inter‑court co‑ordination, projecting a clear signal where numerous contests flow from identical underlying events, even though such matters are dealt with at varying moments and tiers of the court structure. In sum, the outcome reasserts the English courts’ steadfast commitment to upholding arbitration, including in circumstances where the arbitral seat is situated in a foreign state. What was the background? In 2021, the defendant, Ruschemalliance LLC (“RCA”), a Russian entity, entered into two Engineering, Procurement and Construction agreements for the development of liquefied natural gas and gas processing plant facilities in Russia. The obligations owed by RCA’s counterparties, the German companies Linde GmbH and Renaissance Heavy Industries LLC (together,...

In this issue: Key DR developments Cross-border disputes Pre-action and limitation Litigation Case management Evidence and disclosure ADR Scottish Dispute Resolution Dates for your diary Useful information Daily and weekly news alerts Key DR developments Guidance and reports Courts and Tribunals Judiciary publishes February 2026 updated edition of the Equal Treatment Bench Book: The Courts and Tribunals Judiciary has issued an interim February 2026 update to the Equal Treatment Bench Book. For more information, see: Courts and Tribunals Judiciary publishes February 2026 updated edition Equal Treatment Bench Book—LNB News 26/02/2026 28. HCCH publishes 2025 annual report highlighting private international law developments The Hague Conference on Private International Law (HCCH) has released its 2025 annual report, noting the creation of two new Experts’ Groups to examine private international law topics linked to Digital Tokens and Carbon Markets. For more information, see: HCCH publishes 2025 annual report highlighting private international law...

In Downtul Ltd [In Liquidation] v Companies Act [2025] IEHC 358, the Irish High Court imposed restrictions for a period of five years on two directors, after determining that they did not act prudently or have proper regard to the interests of Downtul Limited (the Company) as a distinct entity within a complex corporate arrangement. The decision underlines the intricate nature of directors’ obligations in group scenarios and the need to prioritise the interests of each separate company. As a result of the restriction order, the two individuals—each currently sitting on the boards of more than 100 Irish companies—are barred from acting as company directors for five years unless the relevant company has a nominal share capital of at least €100,000 (or €500,000 where the entity is a public limited company or an unlimited company). Background The individuals were directors of the Company, which leased a commercial premises later occupied and run as a Starbucks café by another company, Atercin. They also served as directors of Atercin...

This Practice Note examines core aspects of the UK framework for money market funds (MMFs) that stems from Regulation (EU) 2017/1131 (the EU MMF Regulation). It also looks at suggested changes to the framework, with the Financial Conduct Authority (FCA), HM Treasury and the Bank of England (BoE) working jointly to bolster its resilience and align it with post‑Brexit regulatory objectives. For background on the EU MMF Regulation, see Practice Note: EU MMF Regulation—essentials. What is an MMF? Money market funds (MMFs) are investment funds that invest in short‑term debt instruments and so play a significant role in the short‑term financing of the economy. In particular, MMFs are open‑ended, liquid investment funds that invest in fixed income through short‑term debt, for example money market instruments issued by banks, governments or companies (including treasury bills, commercial paper and certificates of deposit) which pay interest. They therefore form an important connection between demand for, and the supply of, short‑term debt. Further information on the eligible assets of an MMF is...

Context Jurisdiction clauses frequently appear in commercial contracts and are typically framed as either: Exclusive jurisdiction clauses (see Practice Note:Jurisdiction agreements—exclusive jurisdiction agreements) Non-exclusive jurisdiction clauses (see Practice Note: Jurisdiction agreements—non-exclusive jurisdiction agreements) Where parties have chosen an exclusive jurisdiction term, the default position is that the English court will ordinarily ‘exercise its discretion… to secure compliance with the contractual bargain’. Such provisions now appear ever more often in trust instruments. Nevertheless, several questions arise concerning: the drafting of such clauses the areas to be covered by such clauses the interpretation and effects of such clauses Two examples of jurisdiction clauses As presently encountered, trust jurisdiction provisions create a series of connected issues, including how they are drafted, what they should cover, and how they are interpreted and what they achieve. Before considering their operation, it is useful to look at a couple of typical illustrations: a Jersey law...

Overview This Practice Note forms part of our LLB Contract Law series for law students. It surveys the remedies for breach of contract, with damages at the heart of the common law response. Setting remedies within the framework of contract, it explains when a party may terminate—most notably for breach of conditions and of innominate (or ‘intermediate’) terms. It then sets out the expectation principle from Robinson v Harman (1848) 1 Exch 850, stressing that an award should put the claimant in the position they would have been in had performance occurred. The Note next traces the principal constraints on recovery—causation, remoteness, and the duty to mitigate—and discusses leading cases on mitigation to show how these limits operate even once breach is proved. It also considers alternative measures—expectation, reliance and, in rare cases, restitutionary recovery—before addressing quantification, including the contrast between ‘difference in value’ and ‘cost of cure’ illustrated by Ruxley Electronics v Forsyth [1996] AC 344. Finally, it deals with non-pecuniary loss and the contemporary approach to liquidated...

The Schedule 1 Definitions 1.1 In this Schedule: Adequate Procedures – must be interpreted in line with BA 2010 and any guidance issued under it; Associated Person – means any or all of: (a) the officers, employees, agents, subcontractors, subsidiaries, and individuals Associated With a party (Associates); and (b) persons Associated With any of those Associates, in every instance engaged in carrying out services for, or on behalf of, that party, the Services, and/or this Agreement; and Associated With – where used: (a) in paragraph 2 and in relation to bribery, is to be construed in accordance with BA 2010 and guidance issued under it; (b) in paragraph 4 and regarding the facilitation of tax evasion, is to be construed in accordance with Part 3 of CFA 2017 and guidance issued under it; (c) in paragraph 5 and as regards fraud, is to be construed in accordance with Part 5 of ECCTA 2023 and guidance issued under it; BA 2010 – means the...

Suggested email to arrange counterpart completion with other solicitors SUBJECT: [ Transaction Name OR Details ] – Completion Arrangements We write to outline, for the purposes of these arrangements, our intended approach for arranging the signing and delivery of the documents required for the anticipated completion of [ insert details ]. We confirm that [ insert firm name ] is prepared to serve as nominated person pursuant to section 2(1) of the Legal Writings (Counterparts and Delivery) (Scotland) Act 2015 (the Act), and, as agreed, section 2(3) of the Act is hereby excluded and will not apply to these Completion Arrangements...

This Agreement is entered into on [ date ] Parties [ Insert name of party ] [ of OR a company incorporated in England and Wales under number [ insert registered number ] with its registered office at ] [ insert address ] (Party 1); and [ Insert name of party ] [ of OR a company incorporated in England and Wales under number [ insert registered number ] with its registered office at ] [ insert address ] (Party 2), each of Party 1 and Party 2 being a party and, together, the parties. BACKGROUND Party 1 supplies [ insert description of goods and/or services ]. Party 2 supplies [ insert description of goods and/or services ]. The parties intend to submit a Bid as a joint tender to the Customer in answer to the Invitation to Tender. The parties seek to state their obligations and manage their rights concerning the Bid and, if the...

Section 17 of the Landlord and Tenant (Covenants) Act 1995 (LT(C)A 1995) provides that: (1) This provision applies where a person (“the former tenant”) has, as a consequence of an assignment, ceased to be the tenant under a tenancy, but either: namely that (a) in the context of a new tenancy, has, under an authorised guarantee agreement, guaranteed his assignee’s performance of a tenant covenant of that tenancy under which any fixed charge is payable; or (b) in relation to any tenancy, still remains obliged by that covenant under that tenancy, notwithstanding assignment...

Section 1(1)(a) of the Housing Act 1988 (HA 1988) Under this provision in the Act, only an individual can be the tenant of an assured tenancy. Consequently, a company letting cannot qualify as an assured shorthold tenancy (AST). The HA 1988 also specifies categories of tenancy that are excluded from being ASTs, including business tenancies under the Act. As a result, the arrangement will then fall either as a common law tenancy—outside the HA 1988 and subject to ordinary contractual principles—or, where the relevant requirements are satisfied, as a business tenancy...

Public Contracts Regulations 2015 (PCR 2015), SI 2015/102, reg 33(2) defines a framework agreement as: Regulation 33(2) of the Public Contracts Regulations 2015 (SI 2015/102) describes a framework agreement as an arrangement between one or more contracting authorities and one or more economic operators, intended to set the terms that will govern contracts awarded over a specified period, notably concerning price and, where appropriate, the quantities anticipated. The Crown Commercial Service (CCS) guidance interprets a framework agreement as a broad term for arrangements with providers that lay down the terms and conditions under which agreements for specific purchases—referred to as call-off contracts—can be put in place throughout the life of the agreement...