Includes in the context of the interpretation of statutes and other documents meaning

In legal drafting and interpretation, “includes” is ordinarily used to expand a term’s ordinary meaning: a definition that “includes” specified items is non-exhaustive and extends the scope to cover what is listed and potentially other things of the same kind. This usage is established by case law rather than by a general statutory rule (there is none in the Interpretation Act 1978 or the Interpretation Act 2005) and is applied consistently across England & Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland and Ireland. Courts generally treat “includes” as enlarging unless the context shows an intention to be exhaustive. As explained in Dilworth v Commissioner of Stamps, “includes” usually enlarges, but can operate as “means and includes” where the context requires. In practice, “includes” appears frequently in interpretation sections (for example, “land includes buildings”) and in contracts to signal an open list; drafters often add “without limitation” to avoid arguments based on limitation or the ejusdem generis principle. Contrast with “means”, which ordinarily introduces an exhaustive definition. Context remains decisive: wording such as “includes only”, a closed list, or a deeming formula may indicate exhaustiveness notwithstanding the use of “includes”.